What Is a Fossil? Definition, Types, Examples (2024)

This entry was posted on February 28, 2024 by Anne Helmenstine (updated on May 21, 2024)

Fossils are a fascinating and vital aspect of our planet’s history, offering insights into the life that existed millions of years ago. Here is a look at what fossils are, examples, common misconceptions, how fossilization works, where to find fossils, and a glossary of related terms.

What Is a Fossil? Definition

A fossil is the preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living organism from a past geological age. These include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved in amber, hair, petrified wood, oil, coal, and DNA remnants.

Examples of Fossils

Some fossils are preserved parts of organisms, while others are further removed from their source material. Here are some examples of fossils:

What Is Not a Fossil

Not everything that looks like a fossil is one:

Pseudo-fossils: These are patterns in rocks that look like fossils but are not.
Rocks with Unusual Shapes: Natural rock formations may resemble fossilized remains.
Man-Made Artifacts: Objects like stone tools or pottery fragments are sometimes mistaken for fossils.

Age Range of Fossils

Fossils range in age from a few thousand to several billion years old. Stromatolites are among the oldest fossils, dating back perhaps are long ago as 4 billion years. The most recent fossils come from the last Ice Age, as recently as around 12,000 years ago.

Archean Eon (4.0 to 2.5 billion years ago)
- Stromatolites: These are layered bio-chemical accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding, and cementation of sedimentary grains by microorganisms, primarily cyanobacteria. They are among the oldest known fossils, dating back more than 3 billion years.
Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion to 541 million years ago)
- Acritarchs: A group of microfossils (30 to 1800 micrometers) which are likely the remains of the cysts of ancient eukaryotic algae from as far back as 1.8 billion years ago.
- Banded Iron Formations (BIFs): These are distinctive units of sedimentary rock that are almost always of Precambrian age, some dating to 2.5 billion years ago. They consist of repeated thin layers of iron oxides, either magnetite or hematite, alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert. The formation of BIFs links to the activity of the earliest life forms, specifically cyanobacteria.
Phanerozoic Eon (541 million years ago to present)
- Cambrian Period (541 to 485 million years ago): This period marks the point when most of the major groups of animals first appear in the fossil record. Examples include the well-known Burgess Shale fauna, with creatures like Anomalocaris and trilobites.
- Ordovician Period (485 to 444 million years ago): Characterized by diverse marine fauna such as the early cephalopods (nautiloids), corals, and trilobites.
- Silurian Period (444 to 419 million years ago): Known for the first fossil records of land plants and jawed fishes.
- Devonian Period (419 to 359 million years ago): Known as the “Age of Fishes” for its diverse and abundant fish species, including the early sharks and the first tetrapods (early four-limbed vertebrates).
- Carboniferous Period (359 to 299 million years ago): Famous for its vast swamp forests that eventually turned into coal, and for the evolution of the first amniotes (ancestors of reptiles, birds, and mammals).
- Permian Period (299 to 252 million years ago): Marks the diversification of the early amniotes into the ancestors of mammals and reptiles.
- Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 million years ago): Encompasses the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, known for the dominance of dinosaurs and the appearance of flowering plants.
- Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present): This era follows the extinction of the dinosaurs and features the rise of mammals and birds as dominant terrestrial animals.
- Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million years ago to 11,700 years ago): Most recently within the Cenozoic Era, the Pleistocene Epoch marks the last Ice Age, yielding fossils of now-extinct mammals, such as mammoths, mastodons, and saber-toothed cats.

How a Fossil Forms

Fossilization is complex process that typically occurs in sedimentary rocks. It’s also rare. Most organisms die and decompose, never becoming fossils. The process involves:

1. Death of an Organism

Timeframe: Immediate
Description: The process begins with the death of an organism. The chances of fossilization are higher if the organism has hard parts such as bones, shells, or teeth.

2. Decomposition and Burial

Timeframe: Days to thousands of years
Description: Rapid burial is crucial for fossilization. This sometimes happens through natural events such as floods, volcanic ashfall, or landslides. The quicker an organism is buried, the less it decomposes and the more likely it is to fossilize. Soft tissues decompose quickly (days to weeks), whereas hard parts like bones last longer (hundreds to thousands of years) if not exposed.

3. Sediment Accumulation

Timeframe: Hundreds to millions of years
Description: Layers of sediment build up over the remains. The weight of these layers compacts the sediment, and the minerals in the water start seeping into the remains. This process can take a very long time, depending on sedimentation rates and the depth of burial.

4. Mineralization and Petrification

Timeframe: Thousands to millions of years
Description: This is the key phase of fossilization, known as permineralization or petrification. Minerals dissolved in groundwater slowly replace the organic materials, or fill in the spaces within the organism’s remains. This process takes thousands to millions of years. For instance, petrification of wood might take a few thousand years, while the mineralization of bones could span millions of years.

5. Erosion and Exposure

Timeframe: Variable, often millions of years
Description: Erosion eventually exposes the fossilized remains at the Earth’s surface. This can happen due to natural geological processes like wind or water erosion. The timeframe for this step is highly variable and depends on geological and environmental factors.

6. Discovery

Timeframe: Variable
Description: The final step is the discovery of the fossil by humans, which is not a part of the natural fossilization process but is crucial for the fossil to be studied and understood. The timeframe for discovery ranges from soon after exposure to never, depending on the location and visibility of the fossil.

Specific Fossilization Processes

The form of a fossil depends on the specific processes that form it. For example:

Types of Fossils

There are several different types of fossils, ranging from indirect evidence of living organisms to preserved remains:

1. Body Fossils (Preserved Remains)

Body fossils are direct remains of the organism itself.

Bones and Teeth: Most common in vertebrates like dinosaurs, mammals, fish, and birds. Example: Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton.
Shells and Exoskeletons: Common in invertebrates like mollusks and trilobites. Example: Ammonite shells.
Leaves and Wood: Plant fossils, including petrified wood where the organic material has been replaced with minerals. Example: Fossilized leaves of Ginkgo biloba.
Hair, Skin, and Feathers: Rare due to their delicate nature, but incredibly valuable for understanding soft-tissue anatomy. Example: Feathered dinosaurs.

2. Trace Fossils

Trace fossils, or ichnofossils, are indirect evidence of an organism’s presence.

Footprints and Tracks: Impressions left by animals. Example: Dinosaur footprints in sedimentary rocks.
Burrows and Borings: Holes or tunnels in sediments or wood, indicating the activity of an organism. Example: Trace burrows made by ancient marine worms.
Coprolites: Fossilized feces, providing insight into the diet and digestive system of organisms. Example: Dinosaur coprolites.
Gastroliths: Stones swallowed by animals, often polished smooth inside the gastrointestinal system, and then fossilized. Example: Gastroliths found near dinosaur remains.

3. Molecular Fossils

Molecular fossils, or biomarkers, are organic molecules that provide chemical evidence of past life.

Lipids and Pigments: Organic molecules that can survive long after the organism’s death. Example: Chlorophyll derivatives in ancient plant remains.
DNA Residues: Rare and typically only found in exceptionally preserved specimens. Example: DNA fragments in amber-preserved insects.

4. Microfossils

These are tiny fossils, often of single-celled organisms, requiring magnification to be seen.

Foraminifera and Diatoms: Single-celled organisms with hard parts that fossilize well. Example: Foraminifera in marine sedimentary rocks.
Pollen and Spores: Microscopic plant structures that can be preserved in sediment. Example: Pollen grains in peat bogs or lake sediments.

5. Chemical Fossils

Chemical fossils are fossilized remains of biological chemicals.

Isotopes: Variants of elements that can indicate biological activity. Example: Carbon isotopes in ancient rocks suggesting microbial life.
Coal: Contains chemical fossils that are an organic signature of ancient life.

6. Pseudo-fossils

These are patterns in rocks that resemble fossils but are not biological in origin. There are not fossils.

Dendrites: Crystal formations that look like plant fossils. Example: Manganese dendrites on limestone.
Concretions: Hard, compact masses of mineral matter that can mimic the shape of fossils. Example: Ironstone concretions resembling eggs or shells.

Uses of Fossils

Fossils have uses by geologists, biologists, and other scientists:

Studying Evolution: Tracing the development and changes in species over time.
Understanding Ancient Environments: Offering clues about past climates and ecosystems.
Dating Rocks: Using radioactive elements within fossils for radiometric dating.
Educational and Recreational: In museums and as collectibles.

Where to Find Fossils

Fossil hunting is an exciting and rewarding activity for enthusiasts of all ages. If you’re interested in searching for fossils, here are some key locations and tips on where to find them:

Sedimentary Rock Formations

Cliffs and Quarries: Many fossils occur in sedimentary rocks like limestone, sandstone, and shale. Cliffs along coastlines, riverbanks, and quarries are often rich in fossils.
Example: The White Cliffs of Dover in the UK are famous for marine fossils.

Dry River Beds and Natural Erosion Sites

Exposed Layers: Erosion often exposes older layers of sediment where fossils may be located.
Example: Badlands National Park in the USA is known for its eroded buttes and fossils.

Beaches and Coastal Areas

Shorelines: Look for uncovered fossils after storms or high tides on beaches.
Example: The Jurassic Coast in England is a World Heritage Site with abundant fossils.

Mountain Ranges and Hiking Trails

High Altitude Locations: In mountainous areas, uplift and erosion expose fossil-bearing rocks.
Example: The Rocky Mountains in North America have yielded numerous dinosaur fossils.

Desert Regions

Arid Landscapes: Deserts are excellent places for finding fossils due to low vegetation and erosion that exposes sedimentary layers.
Example: The Gobi Desert is a significant source of dinosaur fossils.

Fossil Parks and Preserves

Dedicated Areas: Some areas are protected and managed for fossil hunting, offering a controlled environment for finding fossils.
Example: The Mazon Creek fossil beds in Illinois, USA, are a renowned fossil-collecting site.

Tips for Fossil Hunting

Research Local Regulations: Some areas have strict rules about fossil collection. Always check local laws and obtain necessary permits.
Safety First: Wear appropriate gear and be mindful of tides, cliffs, and wildlife.
Join a Fossil Hunting Group: Local clubs organize trips and provide valuable knowledge and experience.
Start with Easier Locations: Beaches and eroded areas are more accessible for beginners than cliffs or quarries.
Learn to Identify Fossils: Familiarize yourself with the types of fossils you might find in a given area.
Preserve the Site: Avoid damaging surrounding rocks and habitats.
Report Significant Finds: If you find something unusual or significant, report it to a local museum or university.

Glossary of Fossil-Related Terms

Amber: Fossilized tree resin, often containing perfectly preserved insects and other small organisms.
Biogeography: The study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
Carbonization: A process where only the residual carbon of the organism remains in the fossil.
Diagenesis: The physical and chemical changes occurring during the conversion of sediment to sedimentary rock.
Extinction: The end of an organism or a group of organisms, typically signifying the death of the last individual of the species.
Geologic Time Scale: A system of chronological dating that relates geological strata to time.
Ichnology: The study of trace fossils, such as footprints, burrows, and other marks left by living organisms.
Index Fossil: A fossil that is useful for dating and correlating the strata in which it is found.
Lithification: The process by which sediments compact under pressure, expel fluids, and gradually become solid rock.
Mass Extinction: A widespread and rapid decrease in the biodiversity on Earth, typically characterized by the extinction of a large number of species in a short time period.
Mold and Cast Fossils: A mold is a negative impression of an organism, while a cast is a fossil formed when a mold is filled with sediment or mineral deposits.
Paleoecology: The study of the relationships between ancient organisms and their environment.
Paleontology: The scientific study of life in the geological past, primarily through the analysis of fossils.
Permineralization: A process of fossilization where mineral deposits form internal casts of organisms.
Petrification: The process by which organic material becomes a fossil through the replacement of the original material and the filling of the original pore spaces with minerals.
Radiometric Dating: A technique used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, based on the decay rate of radioactive isotopes.
Sedimentary Rock: A type of rock formed by the accumulation of sediments, often the site of fossilization.
Stratigraphy: The branch of geology concerned with the order and relative position of strata and their relationship to the geological time scale.
Taphonomy: The study of how organisms decay and become fossilized.

References

Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark; et al. (19 October 2015). “Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon”. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 112 (47): 14518–21. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112
Benton, M. (2009). “The completeness of the fossil record”. Significance. 6 (3): 117–121. doi:10.1111/j.1740-9713.2009.00374.x
Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; et al. (2013). “Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia”. Astrobiology. 13 (12): 1103–24. doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1030
Prothero, Donald R. (2013). Bringing Fossils to Life : An Introduction to Paleobiology (3rd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-15893-0.
Schweitzer, M.H.; Wittmeyer, J.L.; et al. (2005). “Soft-tissue vessels and cellular preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex”. Science. 307 (5717): 1952–5. doi:10.1126/science.1108397

What Is a Fossil? Definition, Types, Examples (2024)